Study Guide for Second Quiz
15 February 2000
Biology 115 - Dr. Howard

Format of quiz:

No books or notes allowed on this quiz. Maybe next time.

• 6 multiple-choice questions (0.5 pt each)
• 2 definitions (0.5 point each)
• 2 short-answer questions (1 pt each)
• 1 longer-answer question (4 points)

Things you should know about:

Blood(chapter 5)

• Components of blood: formed elements and plasma
• RBCs: hemoglobin; life cycle; erythropoeitin; anemia
• WBCs
  • granular: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
  • agranular: monocyctes, lymphocytes (B and T)
  • leukemia
• platelets and clotting: fibrinogen, thrombin, fibrin, hemophilia
• plasma: plasma proteins (albumin, antibodies)
• capillary exchange
  • delivery of oxygen to cells in arterial end
  • uptake of CO₂ in midsection
  • uptake of H₂O and wastes at venous end
• lymphatic capillaries: lymph flow, edema
• blood typing: ABO, Rh

Cardiovascular system (chapter 6)

• Blood Vessels: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins
  • cellular makeup of arteries and veins!
  • capillaries: one-cell endothelium layer with basement membrane
• Heart: myocardium, pericardium, atria, ventricles
  • pumping happens in the ventricles
  • atrioventricular valves: tricuspid and bicuspid
  • blood vessels in and out:
    venae cavae, pulmonary arteries and veins, aorta
• heartbeat: systole, diastole
  • 0.85 seconds (atrial systole + ventricular systole + overall diastole)
  • nervous control by sinoatrial (SA) atrioventricular (AV) nodes
  • external control from medulla
  • electrocardiogram: recording of heartbeat
• Features of the circulatory system
  • Pulse: stretch and recoil of arteries as heart beats
  • systolic and diastolic blood pressure
  • blood flow in veins:
    skeletal muscles, valves, respiratory movements
• Vascular pathways
  • pulmonary:
    • deoxygenated blood from right ventricle -> lungs via pulmonary artery
    • oxygenated blood in lungs -> left atrium via pulmonary vein
  • systemic:
    
    • deoxygenated blood from body -> right atrium via venae cavae
    • oxygenated blood from left ventricle -> body via aorta
    • coronary arteries: supply blood to heart muscle itself
    • hepatic portal system
• Cardiovascular disorders
  • Hypertension (blood pressure > 140/90: genetics, diet
  • Atherosclerosis (accumulations of plaque in arteries)
    may be cleared by angioplasty
  • Blood clots (thrombus -> embolus);
    may be dissolved by t-PA
  • Stroke: blood vessel bursts or is blocked in brain
  • Myocardial infarction: death of piece of heart muscle
      coronary bypass operations (pre- or post-infarction)
  • Aneurysm: ballooning of blood vessel
  • Dilated and Inflamed Veins: varicose, phlebitis
• Homeostasis: maintaining heartbeat, keeping blood composisiton constant

Lymphatic and Immune Systems (chapter 7)

• Lymphatic System
  • Lymphatic vessels: similar to veins; thoracic and right lymphatic ducts
  • Lymphoid organs: lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, appendix,
    spleen, thymus, red bone marrow
  • Role of lymphatic system in immunity
• Nonspecific Defenses in Immunity
  • Barring entry: skin, mucous membranes, stomach, bacteria
  • Inflammation: mast cells, histamine, kinins, macrophages
  • Natural Killer Cells (nonspecific)
  • Protective Proteins: Complement and Interferon
• Specific Defenses in Immunity
  • antigens and self-recognition
  • B cells, antibodies, and antibody-mediated immunity:
    • clonal selection, apoptosis
    • immunoglobulin G structures
    • other types of Ig's
  • T cells and B cells
    • cytotoxic, helper, suppressor T cells
    • antigen-presenting cells, MHC, HLA's
• Induced Immunity
  • active: naturally after infection or by immunization
    depends on memory B and memory T cells
  • passive: short-lived protection via mother's milk or IgGs
  • cytokines, including interleukins and interferon
  • monoclonal antibodies (derived from one clone): specific
• Side Effects of Immunity
  • Immediate allergic responses: IgE's
    desenstization shots work by providing IgG's that outcompete IgE's
  • Delayed allergic responses: sensitized T cells
  • Autoimmune diseases: immune system "believes" self is non-self
    myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, type I diabetes
  • Tissue Rejection: antibodies and cytotoxic T cells
    overcome with immunosuppressants (cyclosporine, tacrolimus)
• Homeostasis and Immunity
  • lymph: drains fluid, protects against disease
  • immune system: that's what it's all about
  • connection between immune and endocrine systems: receptors

Respiratory System (chapter 8)

• Respiratory tract
  • Air is filtered, warmed, and moistened
  • Nose: nasal cavities, cilia
  • Pharynx (3 parts) and glottis
  • Larynx (voice box)
  • Trachea: cartilaginous rings, mucus; smoking destroys cilia
  • Bronchi and bronchioles continue tracheal structures
  • Lungs: paired cone-shaped organs with lobes -> alveoli
  • Alveoli: where gas exchange takes place; large surface area
• Mechanism of Breathing
  • Respiratory Volume: vital capacity chart.
  • Inspiration: active movement of ribs, diaphragm
    negative pressure; under nervous control
  • Expiration: usually but not always passive
• Gas Exchanges
  • External Respiration: oxygen into blood, CO₂ out at lungs
  • Internal Respiration: Hb delivers O₂ to cells;
    Hb and dissolved HCO₃^- carry off CO₂
  • Binding Capacity of Hemoglobin: depends on [O₂], Temp, pH
• Upper Respiratory Tract Ailments
  • Colds: caused by rhinovirus; no cure yet; virus is mutatable
  • Flu: caused by influenza virus; virus is mutatable
  • Sinusitis (inflection of sinuses)
  • Otitis media (bacterial infection in middle ear)
  • Tonsillitis
  • Laryngitis
• Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders
  • Bronchitis (acute or chronic)
  • Pneumonia: usually curable; nasty protozoan form seen in AIDS patients
  • Pulmonary tuberculosis: skin test and X ray; history
  • Pulmonary fibrosis
  • Emphysema: simplification of surfaces and scarring
  • Asthma: inflammation and spasms
  • Lung cancer: rare except in smokers and involuntary smokers
• Homeostasis: oxygen, pH regulation, tonsils

Urinary System and Excretion (chapter 9)

• Urinary system
  • Organs: kidneys (produce urine), ureters (transport urine), urinary bladder (stores urine), urethra (passes urine to outside)
  • Nervous control by spinal cord and brain
  • Transports waste, maintains water-salt and pH balance, secretes erythropoetin
• Macroscopic structure of the kidney
  • cortex: granulated layer
  • medulla: striated layer
  • pelvis (cavity, connects with ureter)
• nephron structure
  • glomerulus: knot of capillaries inside Bowman's capsule
    contains podocytes that leave pores to allow filtration
  • proximal convoluted tubule: microvilli with brush-border for tubular reabsorption; many mitochondria
  • loop of Henle: narrow U-turn, partly in medulla, partly in cortex
  • distal convoluted tubule: many mitochontria, no microvilli: actively move molecules
• Urine Formation
  • Glomerular Filtration: water, nitrogenous wastes, nutrients, salts
  • Tubular Reabsorption: actively transports Na⁺, Cl^- follows passively also transports back water, glucose, other nutrients
  • Tubular Secretion: active transport in distal convoluted tubule
• Water-Salt Balance
  • Reabsorption of water in the loop of Henle
    salt extrudes in ascending limb, water diffuses from collecting duct
  • ADH released by pituitary: increases amount of water reabsorbed
  • Reabsorption of salt: in proximal tubule, ascending limb
  • Hormones: aldosterone, renin, atrial natriuretic hormone
  • diuretics: alcohol, caffeine
• Acid-Base Balance
  • Kidneys capable of slow regulation of pH
  • They reabsorb HCO₃^-, excrete H⁺
  • Ammonia, phosphate involved in buffering protons in urine
• Homeostasis
  • water-salt balance and acid-base balance both controlled here
  • interconnected with endocrine system both ways
• Urinary-tract malfunctions
  • Infections in urethra, bladder, and kidneys themselves
    preventatives: drinking water, cranberry juice; good hygeine
  • Glomerular damage: large substances (e.g. proteins) allowed into urine
  • Kidney disfunction if < 1/3rd of nephrons operating
    • Hemodialysis can provide for external filtration
      artificial kidney or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis
    • Permanent solution: kidney transplant