Introduction to the Professions
Biology, Chemistry, and Physics 100
lecture notes for Thursday - Tuesday 25-30 August 2006

What is Science?

Application of systematic observation and the experimental method to the understanding of nature.

Thus:

• Experimentalists and systematic observers are doing science directly.
• Theoreticians are providing the understanding and the pattern-recognition--whether they anticipate and define observations and experiments or explain the results of already-performed experiments. So they're doing science too.
• Modelers combine theory and experiments and develop experiments "on the computer" and record data as if they were coming from laboratory experiments. This can frequently inform the overall scientific process as well.

What is systematic observation?

• Define a set of phenomena to observe and (usually) measure
• Observe and measure them without prejudice.
• Be alert for changes in the system as you observe it.

What is the experimental method?

• Form an hypothesis.
• Devise an experiment whose result will provide evidence that will either support or run counter to the hypothesis.
• Perform and analyze the experiment.
• Interpret the results of the experiment.
• Refine the hypothesis and devise further experiments.
• Develop theories that synthesize a series of hypotheses and the results of a series of experiments.
• Describe the experiment or the theory (or both) in a way that enables others to repeat and verify the observations.

Some fields of rational observation and inquiry aren't by this definition scientific:

• Mathematics (no observation or experimentation)
• Human history, some human psychology (observation isn't systematic)

Does this make these fields inferior to scientific fields? NO!
In fact, this approach ought to enforce humility on the scientists.
"We're not the only seekers after truth?"

Is this way of defining science Humpty-Dumptyism?

. . . in other words: is this an artificial definition?

Humpty-Dumpty: There's glory for you!

Alice: I don't know what you mean by `glory'

Humpty-Dumpty: Of course you don't--till I tell you. I meant, "there's a nice knock-down argument for you!"

Alice: But "glory" doesn't mean "a nice knock-down argument!"

Humpty-Dumpty: When I use a word, it means what I choose it to mean--neither more or less.

Alice: The question is, whether you can make words mean so many different things.

Humpty-Dumpty: The question is, which is to be the master--that's all.

This attitude toward definitions is necessary in rational discourse so that a systematic thinker can build a discussion around his or her own set of definitions. But if those definitions vary significantly from those of the thinker's audience, problems can arise. So: is my definition of science appropriate? It is if it is useful. I claim that it is useful, because it provides a framework for clarifying what science is and does. It differs from the lay definition, but it has substantial historical precedent.

What is science for?

• Basic Research: Knowledge for its own sake.
  • Hypotheses, experiments, models that elucidate laws of nature
  • Not driven by commercial or explicitly practical motives
• Technology and Applied Science:
  • Applications that further economic development
  • Applications that improve human life
• Two or more of these functions may operate in the same scientific effort.
• "Universities do basic research; industry does applied research"
  ... not really: plenty of overlap.
• Is one motivation more exalted than the others?
  Is it more honorable to pursue knowledge for its own sake or to develop pharmaceutical products that relieve suffering?

Who performs scientific work?

• Academic researchers (big universities, small colleges)
• Scientists in government (national laboratories, smaller outposts)
• Scientists in private industry (small and large companies)
• Amateurs (rarities: the cheap experiments have been done)

Who pays for science?

• Government: grants, contracts; peer-reviewed research
  covers government labs, academics, even small-industry research
  mostly but not entirely federal funds.
• Industry: internal, extramural research.
• Philanthropic organizations

How does a scientist really spend his or her time?

• Planning, setting up, performing, interpreting experiments
• Developing hypotheses and theories
• Writing peer-reviewed manuscripts
• Teaching science (even in non-academic environments)
• Requesting funds (from all of the above)
• Administration

What is the role of mathematics in science?

• Most experimental results are quantitative
• "Mathematics is the language of science"
  • interpretation of results involves mathematics
  • construction of useful theories usually involves mathematics

What disciplines make up the universe of scientific study?

• Physical Sciences: physics, astronomy, chemistry, geology
• Life Sciences: botany, microbiology, zoology, anthropology, psychology

How real are the dividing lines between disciplines?

• Dividing lines between disciplines are meaningful:
  • they tell us the category from which a datum arises
  • they provide a framework for pedagogy
• Dividing lines are illusory:
  • interface disciplines exist between almost any unhyphenated pair of sciences in the list above: biophysics, geochemisty, . . .
  • often the most important advances occur along these interfaces
  • advances in one field usually require insights or information derived from another scientific or non-scientific discipline!